Research

May 8, 2026

The greatest threats to the tropical rainforest

In 2024 alone, Peru lost 203,000 hectares of forest – a vast area equivalent to around 80 per cent of the Saarland1. But why is this the case?

What are the causes of the destruction of the tropical rainforest?

If you look for the cause of the ongoing destruction of the Amazon rainforest, the answer is remarkably simple: us.

As we humans …

spread out further and further,
using more and more land for housing,
transport routes and
food production, and
tapping into new resources,

we are ensuring that more and more forests are being cleared – not just in the Amazon.

The Madre de Dios region in the Peruvian part of the Amazon – the region where our conservation areas are also located – is considered the most biodiverse place in the world. It is home to many hectares of intact primary forest – and yet we humans have left our unmistakable mark there too.

The term ‘primary forest’ refers to old, intact forest ecosystems that have been unaffected by human activity, or only to a minimal extent. They are characterised by a high level of biodiversity, which has likewise not been affected by introduced invasive species. However, this does not mean that primary forests must be free from human presence. In the Amazon region in particular, many indigenous communities have been living in harmony with nature for hundreds of years and use forest resources sustainably to maintain their traditional ways of life.

Urbanisation and the Interoceanic Highway

Stretching like an ugly scar right across the rainforest between the Rio Madre de Dios and the smaller Tambopata River lies the Interoceanic Highway – a transcontinental motorway 26,000 km long, linking Peru and Brazil. On the map, you can clearly see how people are spreading out along this motorway (as well as along the Madre de Dios River, which is also a major transport artery), how settlements and towns are springing up, and how cleared and agriculturally used areas are ‘encroaching’ ever further into the rainforest.

Satellite map showing Route 30C winding through dense rainforest in Peru, connecting settlements including Imambari, Las Palmeras, and Puerto Maldonado. — Source: Google Maps

Timber Industry & Agriculture

The timber industry, too, has an interest in opening up new transport routes and building roads – not through the rainforest, but right into the heart of it. The most valuable trees are felled directly by loggers, whilst the comparatively cheap tropical timber (e.g. mahogany) is transported straight out of the forest.² This selective logging often takes place illegally.

A vicious circle: between slash-and-burn farming and livestock farming

This is followed by the complete clearing of the land. Often, the remaining large trees are felled, left lying on the ground to dry over the summer, and months later the entire area is burnt. After this so-called slash-and-burn clearing, smallholders plant a few crops – usually cassava, bananas or papayas – amongst the jumble of half-burnt, fallen tree trunks, which slowly rot and continue to act as fertiliser for some time.

A sad sight of destruction: a clear-cut area near our conservation areas.

Deforested rainforest with tree stumps, felled logs, and young vegetation regrowth beneath a cloudy sky. — A sad sight of destruction: a clear-cut area near our conservation areas.

However, after just 2–3 years, the soil is depleted and no longer yields the desired harvests. The land is fertilised again, grass is sown, and the following year the land is used for livestock farming; yet the cattle can find hardly anything to eat, which is why this too comes to an end after just a few years. After that, the land could only be used by applying enormous quantities of fertiliser – which is hardly economically viable for the region’s farmers. So they move on and clear the next patch of woodland, often situated right next to the previous one.

In Brazil in particular, where the largest part of the Amazon rainforest is located, large areas are being cleared specifically for the cultivation of soya. This is less the case in Peru. The soya, around a fifth of which comes from illegally deforested land despite the 2006 soya moratorium³, also finds – or indeed, particularly finds – willing buyers in EU countries. Not for human consumption, but for the production of animal feed⁴. In Germany, too, in 2022, almost half of the soya meal used to feed so-called livestock came from Brazil⁵.

Illegal gold mining

We see and hear them regularly on the Tambopata River, even very close to our conservation areas: the roaring drills of the gold mines. The vast majority of gold mines in the region are operated illegally. Their mobile mining operations are situated directly on the river and are therefore in public space.

Unfortunately, we regularly come across gold mines of this kind on the Tambopata River.

Wooden boat with sail mast beached on muddy riverbank beside dense jungle forest and brown river. — Unfortunately, we regularly come across gold mines of this kind on the Tambopata River.

Nevertheless, their presence has a serious impact on the surrounding ecosystem and on the health of the people working in the mines. Vast quantities of mercury, which are needed to extract the gold from the ground, end up in the river and poison people and animals. Yet despite the fact that the day labourers working there are constantly putting their health at risk, the lucrative trade remains a powerful draw. By Peruvian standards, the people working in the gold mines earn an extremely high income – in some cases between 50 and 200 USD a day!

Like scars, the traces of the gold mines cut through the rainforest. (Source: Google Maps)

Satellite map of La Pampa region showing Route 30C, towns Santa Rosa and La Pampa 103 in Argentina. — Like scars, the traces of the gold mines cut through the rainforest. (Source: Google Maps)

The gold prospectors are pushing ever further into the forest, setting up camp there, clearing the rainforest in their search for gold and leaving behind deep craters6. In La Pampa, around 100 km west of Puerto Maldonado, the full extent of the devastation becomes clear: illegal gold mining has already destroyed over 70,000 hectares of rainforest there – an area almost the size of the whole of Hamburg.

All that remains is bare earth, muddy pits and rust-brown waterholes – a wasteland contaminated with pollutants. It is unlikely that the ecosystem there will ever recover from this. Yet gold mining techniques that do not rely on mercury have long been available, such as gravity separation, which exploits the difference in density between gold and other minerals. Shaking tables, vibrating boxes and washing bowls are used in this old and simple method to separate the particles from one another20. That would at least solve part of the problem. Another, more recent

method of gold extraction is the recycling of electronic waste. Disused mobile phones and computers, for example, contain considerable amounts of the precious metal, but until now it has been virtually impossible to recycle them efficiently and sustainably. A research team at Flinders University in Australia has developed a new process that does not use any toxic chemicals at all21. Perhaps ‘urban mining’ is the alternative to illegal gold panning in the middle of the rainforest?

A wasteland where there used to be a healthy rainforest. This is the result of illegal gold mining.

Aerial view of river landscape with brown islands, dark water, and white cumulus clouds under blue sky. — A wasteland where there used to be a healthy rainforest. This is the result of illegal gold mining.

What are the consequences of rainforest deforestation?

The destruction of large areas of rainforest has a negative impact on the forest itself, the global climate, our livelihoods and our daily lives – even thousands of kilometres away.

A destructive cycle

The forests of the Amazon Basin are the largest contiguous rainforests on Earth. This means they are not only a huge CO₂ sink, but also generate their own weather – a unique water cycle that carries rain from the Atlantic up to 5,000 km westwards across the continent.

A single large primeval forest giant can exhale and evaporate over 700 litres of water a day, thereby influencing both the local and global climate⁷. The only thing that sustains this water cycle is the vast extent of the contiguous rainforests.

Evaporation above the rainforest – a gigantic river in the sky.

Dense forest covered in morning mist at sunrise with golden light on horizon — Evaporation above the rainforest – a gigantic river in the sky.

If more and more forest is destroyed, it will be able to produce less and less rain. A destructive cycle begins, a self-reinforcing effect: less rain leads to longer dry spells; drought is followed by heat; and this, combined with the lack of water, causes the rainforest to disappear even faster. The Amazon region has already experienced three extreme droughts in 2005, 2010 and 2015/2016⁸. Scientists estimate that with a temperature rise of around 4 degrees Celsius and a deforestation rate of 20–25 per cent, the Amazon rainforest would turn into a vast stepperde⁹.

Droughts and water shortages naturally also have negative effects on the local population, who rely on the rainforest and its rivers as sources of water and food. The quality of the air we breathe also suffers considerably as a result of deforestation. Forests not only produce the oxygen we need to live, they also filter fine particulate matter – such as heavy metals and soot particles produced by industrial and vehicle emissions – out of the atmosphere. And yes, even though it seems unbelievable – exhaust fumes emitted here reach forests in North and South America in just a few days. Everything is interconnected.

Loss of a massive CO₂ reservoir

The world’s forests and peatlands sequester vast amounts of CO₂ – both in their living biomass and in the soil. The Amazon alone stores carbon equivalent to 15–20 years’ worth of current human CO₂ emissions10. When such carbon-rich ecosystems are destroyed, they release more CO₂ than can ever be sequestered again within a timeframe relevant to humansre¹¹. Every tree that is felled and removed from the forest will, sooner or later, rot or be burnt; whether in the form of paper recycled seven times over or a piece of furniture passed down through the generations. A carbon store that has built up over millennia in the forest’s biomass is thus released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide within a very short time. 10–15 per cent of all annual emissions are ^caused by deforestation and the draining of forest bogs¹², a situation that must be halted as a matter of urgency.

Trees felled in the Peruvian rainforest also end up here in Europe as items of furniture or everyday objects.

Stacked cut logs piled at a lumber yard with exposed tree rings, surrounded by tropical vegetation under a blue sky. — Trees felled in the Peruvian rainforest also end up here in Europe as items of furniture or everyday objects.

Decline in biodiversity

Tropical rainforests are home to 50–75 per cent – and, according to some estimates, as much as 90 per cent – of all animal and plant species on our ^planet13. The Madre de Dios region is considered the most biodiverse place in the world. In our conservation areas in Tambopata, we have so far been able to

477 bird species,
62 amphibian and reptile and
92 mammal species (including 48 large mammal species and 44 bat species).

By way of comparison: in Germany, there are only 21 amphibian, 15 reptile and 25 bat species.

Wildlife cameras help us to study the wildlife in our nature reserves.

Jaguar on forest floor at night, infrared camera trap image from 2022 — Wildlife cameras help us to study the wildlife in our nature reserves.

However, this biodiversity is under threat. Worldwide, over 42,000 species are classified as threatened on the IUCN Red List – that is around 28 per cent of all assessed ^species14. Almost 40 per cent of all tree species worldwide are now threatened with extinction, primarily due to deforestation, agriculture and climate ^change15. A species dies every few minutes aus¹⁶ and the trend is rising. Furthermore, the abundance of living organisms is also declining. Looking at vertebrates alone, their numbers have more than ^halved compared with 197017.

Deforestation is synonymous with habitat loss, and this is the main cause of the decline in biodiversity. Not only are animals driven out of their habitats – highly specialised, endemic species may become completely extinct as a result of losing their specific habitat. The extinction of ‘just’ a single plant species is often linked to the extinction of a further 10 to 30 animal and plant species, as most organisms in the rainforest are interdependent sind¹⁸. Millions of species have thus disappeared along with the rainforest in recent decades.

One positive example from our protected areas is the spider monkey. These had largely disappeared from this area but are now slowly returning.

A monkey leaps between tree branches above lush rainforest with misty green hills in distance. — One positive example from our protected areas is the spider monkey. These had largely disappeared from this area but are now slowly returning.

There is a debate amongst scientists as to whether the loss of biodiversity might affect us even more severely than the collapse of the global climate. The decline in genetic diversity has a direct negative impact on the functioning of ecosystems. Agricultural systems are becoming more vulnerable to disruptions, which in turn has a negative impact on our food system. Animal pollinators are indispensable for more than 75 per cent of our food crops (fruit and vegetables) and our agricultural crops19. Without them, not only is global food production at risk, but other plant-based resources – such as those used in medicines – may no longer be available to us; after all, the rainforest is also our world’s greatest pharmacy.

Animal pollinators in the rainforest include, for example, these beautiful butterflies. Here in Germany, unfortunately, you rarely see butterflies anymore.

Black and yellow butterflies resting on sandy ground with blurred background. — Animal pollinators in the rainforest include, for example, these beautiful butterflies. Here in Germany, unfortunately, you rarely see butterflies anymore.

We humans are dependent on nature and the biodiversity of intact ecosystems – whether we like it or not. Food, medicines, textiles, water and heat are just a few of the things that nature provides us with every day, completely free of charge. So by continuing to destroy them, we are inevitably harming ourselves as well.

Measures to combat deforestation

The reasons why rainforests are being cleared are complex. It is not a case of mindless destruction – often, people see deforestation or gold mining as the only and quickest way to improve their financial situation and feed their families. Very few can afford to make long-term investments. Furthermore, there is a lack of specialist knowledge, training and opportunities for alternative sources of income such as ecotourism or agroforestry.

This is precisely where our projects in Peru come in: we aim to offer as many Peruvians as possible an alternative source of income, for example through our forest guardian programme. We also see an important part of our work as fostering knowledge and understanding of the forest and its inhabitants from an early age, for example through our agroforestry project, our environmental education programme WIPerú Educa, or local research grants that we award to young Peruvians. In this way, we and the team at Wilderness International Peru support the local population in gaining a better understanding of the forest – and of just how important it is and why it is worth protecting. We work very closely with the surrounding communities to achieve this.

As part of our environmental education programme, we share important knowledge about the forest – with both children and adults.

Woman teaching students in an open-sided classroom with glass panels and wooden frame, projector on wall, students seated at tables with materials. — As part of our environmental education programme, we share important knowledge about the forest – with both children and adults.

Programmes such as REDD+ also help to reduce deforestation. REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) is a United Nations programme that financially rewards countries for protecting their forests rather than clearing them. This makes preserving the rainforest more economically attractive and can help reduce deforestation. At the same time, it promotes the sustainable use and better monitoring of forests. The system is not perfect, and despite its many advantages, there is also room for criticism of REDD+, but it remains an important building block in global forest and climate protection.

Generally speaking, it helps to educate people about structures and patterns so that they can make climate-friendly decisions. Raising awareness about more sustainable consumption choices here in Europe also has a major impact on the rainforests in North and South America. Ultimately, everything is interconnected. When we’re looking for a new piece of jewellery, it makes a difference whether it’s made from recycled gold or newly mined gold – and where that material comes from. It makes a difference whether we buy new pieces of furniture made from tropical timber without a second thought, or opt to shop second-hand instead.

With small changes in our everyday lives, we can all make a big difference. This article aims to contribute to raising awareness of these issues. Thank you for your interest!

The author

Ulrike Pröschild

Communications